Seeing Double: Twin Biology in Space

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  Astronauts Mark (left) and Scott (right)  (left) Kelly, the identical twins are the focus of the Twin Study.  (Credit: NASA)

  Contributors/Authors: 

  Barb Regan, NSS volunteer

  Riley Hamilton, NSS Intern Summer
  

  Welcome to the SpacEdge Academy lesson on the NASA Twins Study! In 2015, NASA conducted a huge study with identical twin astronauts, Mark and Scott Kelly. One astronaut (Mark)  who had spent some time in space, later stayed on Earth while his twin brother (Scott) endured almost a year-long stay on the International Space Station. Scientists took biological samples and conducted tests on both twins to track the effects of long-term spaceflight on the human body.

  Goals of Lesson: To understand the basics of each individual branch of the Twin Study and learn about how space affects us!
  

  Glossary: is found in Section 12 below.

  Keywords: microgravity, metabolism, bacteria, protein, telomeres, immune system, cognition, microbes, spaceflight, omics, gene, epigenomics, twins

  NGSS Standards*:

  A full list of the Next Generation Science Standards can be navigated here. The standards that this lesson can fulfill are as follows:

  MS-LS1-1, MS-LS1-2, MS-LS1-3, MS-LS1-5, MS-LS1-6, MS-LS1-7, MS-LS1-8, MS-LS2-3, MS-LS2-4, MS-LS3-1, MS-LS3-2, MS-LS3-3, MS-LS4-2, MS-LS4-4, MS-LS4-5, MS-LS4-6, MS-LS4-2, MS-PS1-6, MS-ESS3-3, MS-ESS3-4, MS-ETS1-1

  *Please see the PowerPoint file in the Teacher Suggestions section for a breakdown of which topics in this lesson fulfill which standards. 

  For more information and activities from NASA, visit the NASA page here:

  (Credit: NASA)
  

  For more information on each individual study, see here: https://www.nasa.gov/twins-study/research 

  If you're interested in learning more about how human bodies are affected by space travel in this great SpacEdge lesson, written by Loretta Hall, Space Ambassador for the National Space Society: Venus and Mars: Space Travel Differences for Women and Men

  *In the figures provided in the brochures, Mark (ground) is in green while Scott (space) is in blue.

  *See glossary for standard definitions of words 
  

  *Image sources are hyperlinked as the image itself in the downloadable PowerPoints. Sources for images in the SpacEdge lesson are listed alongside the image.

• Introduction to Omics

  What are omics?

  In science, the suffix "-ome" refers to a whole of something. For example, a genome is all of the DNA, including genes, in a cell or organism. Different omics fields could study the total proteins, metabolites, and or all the RNA that is transcribed from DNA. Omics already allows us a bigger picture, but combining all these big pictures into one, and analyzing them against each other can give us even more insight into bodily processes and the body as a whole. The analytical approach of integrative omics, also known as multiomics or panomics, is a way of considering multiple spheres of cell biology to understand the bigger picture of how our cells function and interact. Watch this video to learn more about the discoveries that have been made with a multiomics approach, and where the field is going in the near future:

   

   
  So, how does this relate to the twin study?
  

  Scientists in the NASA Twin Study used an integrative omics approach to examine the larger consequences of long term spaceflight on our human bodies. 

  Hands-on activity

  The space for completing this activity is in the brochures below. Watch one of the videos on omics and complete the questions on the back of the brochure. Then, pair up with a partner and discuss omics!

  Open-ended Questions: 
  
  In your own words, what is the purpose of integrative omics?
  Can you think of any problems that might require multiple perspectives or datasets to solve?
  How are omics different from individual biological fields like genetics, immunology, or physiology?
  
  

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    Omics Brochure Archivo

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    Printable brochure that introduces 

    students 

    

    to the different branches of the NASA Twin Study, 

    with teacher resources explaining the three key findings of the study.     

    
    

• Telomeres

  What are telomeres?

  To understand telomeres, we must first understand that our DNA, the nucleic acid chains stored in each of our cells’ nuclei that contain the code for how our bodies function and appear, is organized into chromosomes, which are structures that look almost like an X when they are duplicated (see picture below).

  (Credit: Pixabay)

  
  Every time a cell divides, all of our DNA must be replicated so that the new cell, called a daughter cell, has all the information to operate on its own. But the problem is, each time DNA is replicated, a few nucleic acids are lost off the ends of the DNA. Luckily for us, our chromosomes have ends called telomeres, which are DNA-protein structures that protect our genome from being degraded. 
  
  

  Aglet metaphor

  You can think of telomeres like aglets on shoelaces. The little plastic or metal tips on the ends of shoelaces prevent the laces from becoming frayed and unraveling.

  Telomeres have a very similar function for chromosomes. Read or listen to the blog post below to learn more about the history of telomere science: https://geneticsunzipped.com/transcripts/2019/7/18/untying-natures-shoelaces 

  
  

  Aging 

  As the blog post mentions, when we are young, an enzyme called telomerase adds nucleotide bases to the telomeres when DNA replicates and cells divide. But, as we age, cells divide repeatedly until eventually there is not enough telomerase to continue keeping our telomeres at the same length. So, telomeres get shorter and shorter, and some attribute this to one of the reasons human experience symptoms of ageing and have a higher mortality rate the older we get. When telomeres become too short, cells can no longer divide properly due to damaged DNA, like fraying shoelaces. When cells cannot divide properly, they hopefully either die or go into a sleep-like state where they cannot cause harm. However, if the checkpoints that control the cell cycle malfunction, our cells can quickly grow into cancerous cells, which are very aggressive and can grow and divide into dangerous tumors. In other circumstances, certain genetic disorders, like dyskeratosis congenita, are caused by mutations affecting telomere maintenance. Watch the below video to learn more about why dysfunctional telomerase could cause health problems 

    

    
  

  
  

  Hands-On Activity

  Space for completing this activity are on the printable brochure below. Watch the video linked on the brochure and answer the questions associated with telomere health. 

  If you are looking for a deeper understanding or enrichment to this lesson, consider cutting off the ends of some old shoelaces, and see how fast they fray when being tugged at. 

  Open-ended Questions:

  How does telomere shortening contribute to the aging process?

  What are some potential consequences of cells with critically short telomeres?

  How can telomere dysfunction lead to the development of diseases like cancer?

  
  
  

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    Telomeres Brochure Archivo

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    Printable brochure that takes students 

    through the necessary background knowledge and main findings form the telomeres portion of the NASA Twin Study - 

    Students will learn about the definition of telomeres and how lifestyle affects their length

• Immunome

  Immune Intro

  The immune system has a dual function: defending/killing (inflammation) and healing (growth). 

  An antigen is a foreign, non-self substance in the body. 

  The immune system has mechanisms by which it recognizes things that are a part of your own body and things that are not. Antigens often let off a protein that immune cells can track down, or they have some sort of membrane receptor/feature that is easily recognized as not a part of the host body. Sometimes though, if you’ve never had a certain bacterial infection or virus, the immune system can get overwhelmed because it doesn’t know how to fight it. Antibiotics can help eliminate bacteria by killing it directly, but we do not have this ability with viruses. We must get vaccines before we are exposed to the virus instead. The point of vaccines is to train your immune system to recognize and neutralize some threats to the body. They give the immune cells a test run with a weakened or dead version of the virus so that when the body is finally exposed to it, the cells know how to recognize it and fight. 

  As an extra precaution, the immune system can signal for the production of extra responses. For example, when an infection or viral load is sensed, our brain can (subconsciously) give us a fever. This is our bodies' way of trying to make it too hot for the virus or bacteria to live inside! This is why an injury might swell, you might sneeze or snot a lot with a cold, or puss might come out of a pimple - these are the body’s extra forces coming in to combat the threat to our health

  Phagocytosis
  

  So how does the body combat foreign invaders? For one, white blood cells try to kill and recycle as many as possible. The mechanism by which macrophages kill antigens is called phagocytosis. The stages of phagocytosis are: (i) recognition of the target particle, (ii) signaling to activate the internalization machinery, (iii) phagosome formation, and (iv) phagolysosome maturation. In layman's terms, these can be referred to as recognition, signaling, engulfing, and digesting. During this process, the actin skeleton that provides structure to the cytoplasm rearranges itself so that the cell may fully engulf the antigen with its cell membrane. The antigen is enclosed in a vesicle called a phagosome, and then digestive enzymes and acidic substances break down the antigen in the vesicle. To visualize this amazing process more effectively, this video contains both animations and real phagocytosis occurring!

     

     
  

  Hands-on Activity: Cartoon Drawing

  The space for completing this activity is included in the brochure below! Split students into groups of 4 and assign each of them to a stage of phagocytosis (recognition, envelopment, digestion, elimination/utilization). Distribute pens, pencils, markers, crayons, or other art supplies at your discretion. Allow students time to draw their portion of the process and have them combine their cartoons side by side to show the entire process of white blood cells neutralizing bodily threats.

  Open-ended Questions

   When you have an antigen present in your body, what is the first thing your immune system does, ideally?

   Why do we get fevers?

   How do vaccines work? Why don't antibiotics work for viruses?

  
  

  
  

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    Immunome Brochure Archivo

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    Printable brochure that takes students through the necessary background

    

    knowledge and main findings from the immunome portion of the NASA Twins Study.  Students are engaged in answering the question asked:

    Did space-located Scott Kelly's immune system respond appropriately to a flu vaccine?
    

• Gene Expression

  Introduction

  A gene is a section of DNA that codes for a particular protein. The kind and amount of proteins in the body determines not only what we look like (physical attributes), but how we digest food and use energy, and how our bodies and cells function!

  Central Dogma of Biology 
  

  The so-called “Central Dogma of Biology” is that genes are transcribed into RNA by RNA polymerase, and this RNA is translated into protein by ribosomes. DNA is used as a code for RNA, with nitrogenous bases being copied into other nitrogenous bases, and RNA is used as a code for proteins, with each triplet of nucleotides (called a codon) indicating to the ribosome to add one of the 20 amino acids to the protein chain.

  Gene Expression Definition

  Gene expression is the amount and frequency with which genes are used to make proteins. Changes in protein levels affect the body, so gene expression is hugely important to consider for our health. For example, let’s look at keratin, a common protein that is the main component in our hair and fingernails. There are often target levels of proteins that are considered ‘normal’ (although this word is loaded with context - those who have medical concerns outside of this supposed normal are not any less than normal, even though their lives may be different or possibly more difficult). An excess in keratin can cause keratosis pilaris, which is a skin condition that is not harmful but causes bumps on the skin, most often on the arms. In more serious cases, a condition called epidermiolytic hyperkeratosis caused by a genetic mutation that makes the body overexpress keratin results in thick, scaly skin in a large area. Decreased keratin levels can cause hair damage and higher rates of hair loss, more fragile skin and fingernails, and in the worst cases, liver injury. This is the case for many proteins, in that having too much or too little can be detrimental to our health. 

  Intro to epigenetics: we can change how our genes are expressed!

  As we will soon learn in the epigenomics brochure, genes can be turned on and off through different chemical mechanisms. Gene expression (protein levels in the body) can be affected by a number of things, including specific tags on DNA that allow it to unravel to be copied. This is not the only way that genes are controlled, since there are proteins called transcription factors that modulate gene expression. There are silencer regions of DNA that can recruit repressor proteins to lower the level of the transcription and therefore allowing only certain gene codes for a protein. Inversely, there are promoter regions of DNA that enhancer proteins can attach to in order to increase the gene codes production of the protein. 

  
  

  Hands-on Activity: Article

  The space to complete this activity is included in the brochure below. Print and hand out CNN article (or one of similar length/content about the Twin Study gene expression). Have students read the article and write their answers to the questions on the brochure. Facilitate a discussion or hand out sheets with prepared open-ended questions.

  
  

  Open-ended Questions:

  What sorts of factors affect how a gene is expressed?

  Is a change in gene expression necessarily detrimental to someone’s health?

  Does gene expression alter our genetic code? Why or why not?

  
  

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    Gene Expression Brochure Archivo

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    Printable brochure that takes students 

    through the necessary background knowledge and main findings of the gene expression portion of the NASA Twin Study

• Cognition

  Cognition - “the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses”

  
  

  Some components of cognitive function are perception, attention, memory, decision-making, and language comprehension

  
  

  
  

  Memory

  There are different kinds of memory - long term and short term. The hippocampus, neocortex, and amygdala are generally responsible for memory, especially long term. The pre-frontal cortex is responsible for most short-term ‘working’ memory consolidation. 

  Sleep is incredibly important for forming memories! Read this paper to find out more: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3768102/ 

  
  

  Speed and Accuracy

  The motor cortex is responsible for voluntary movement, while the cerebellum is responsible for speed (since it is activated during fast movement) and coordination. Click here for a full lesson on Body Movement and the Brain.

  
  

  There are confounding factors in an online cognition test. Once the test loads the image someone must click on, the eyes must perceive and then send this image to the brain, and the brain must decide the next course of action. Then, once it decides (hopefully quickly), it has to send a signal to your finger to click. We are relying on computer speed, but even if the test were not online, we would be most interested in perception speed and reaction speed from the test subject as a measure of brain activity. 

  
  

  Hands-on Activity: Cognition Tests

  The space for completing this activity is included in the brochure below. Have students take turns getting baseline scores from the brain processing speed test. Instruct students to spin around for 10-30 seconds and try to complete the brain speed test immediately after the disorienting spin. Feel free to implement another method of disorientation, like headstands, if students are able to do them. Have students compare their scores post-spin to their baseline scores. Discuss the challenges associated with the brain under microgravity.  

  
  

  Open-ended Questions:

  How did you feel trying to think after spinning around?

  How might our cognition be affected by space travel?

  What could we do to protect ourselves from losing cognitive ability in space?

  
  
  

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    Cognition Brochure Archivo

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    Printable brochure guiding students 

    through the necessary background knowledge and main findings from the cognition portion of the NASA Twin Study - 

    Students will learn some of the effects of microgravity on cognition.

• Epigenomics

  What is a gene? 

  Certain portions of DNA – called genes - code for certain proteins. Genes are transcribed by RNA polymerase into RNA. This RNA is then translated by ribosomes into proteins. Physical features like eye color, attached earlobes, and widow’s peaks are a result of genetics. But genetics is not just about how a person looks, but the instructions for operating our bodies! Genetic mutations, when even one nitrogenous base from our DNA is added, deleted, or substituted for another, can have a great effect on health and well being. Most genetic mutations are harmless. However, if a gene mutates enough to be nonsensical, then a person’s proteins may not work in the way they are meant to, and this can lead to some serious consequences. For example, the condition cystic fibrosis is caused by a mutation in the gene that codes for the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) protein. This protein affects the cells that produce mucus, sweat, and digestive juices. The faulty protein in individuals with CF causes these fluids to be thick and sticky. The resulting disorder is life-threatening. 

  
  

  But, mutations are not the only thing that affects our protein outcomes. Epigenomics control the amount and frequency with which genes are expressed into proteins. 

  
  

  Genetic light switch

  Through a process called methylation, genes can be effectively turned off. In general, methylation helps recruit proteins that repress a gene directly, or inhibiting the binding of transcription factors to the DNA. Both of these mechanisms make it harder for that specific gene to be transcribed into RNA, then further translated into protein. So, the effect of methylation of a gene is reducing production of the protein that gene codes for and therefore reducing that protein’s total levels in the cell (and body, on a bigger scale). Demethylation stops the inhibition of transcription factors and recruitment of repressors, which make it easier for that gene to be expressed. 

  
  

  DNA is wrapped around proteins called histones, and in order for it to be transcribed, it must unravel to allow RNA polymerase to copy its code. This unraveling happens through a process called histone acetylation, which is also an epigenetic mechanism. 

  
  

  Evolutionary benefits

  Why might epigenetics be helpful to animal survival? As a thought exercise, consider a bear that hibernates in the winter. In order to survive, hibernating animals must use very little energy, since they do not receive much food to fuel their body during hibernation. What features may help a bear to survive in the winter months vs. the summer months? Different protein levels may affect fat storage, energy usage, and even behavior. How might turning genes on and off help the bear?  

  
  

  Hands-on Activity: University of Utah GFP website

  
  

  The space for completing this activity is included in the brochure below. Introduce the protein GFP (green fluorescent protein) and its function in research - used to tag fluorescently so scientists can track expression of a target gene. Have students explore the Utah GFP expression page, toggling between fully open, acetylated DNA to tightly wound, methylated DNA. Instruct students to answer the questions on their brochure.

  
  

  What did students notice about the expression of protein when the DNA was more methylated? When it was more acetylated? Were methyl tags always placed with acetyl tags, or could the DNA be demethylated without an acetyl tag jumping in?

  
  

  Open-ended Questions:

  What does DNA methylation do to your genes?

  What evolutionary benefit might epigenetics serve? i.e. why would this ability to switch genes on and off develop?

  What could be the effect of Mark’s overall change in methylation while he was here on Earth? 

  
  
  

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    Epigenomics Brochure Archivo

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    Printable brochure taking students 

    through the necessary background knowledge and main findings of the epigenomics portion of the NASA Twin Study - 

    Students will learn some of the different molecular mechanisms of the epigenome

• Metabolomics

  Metabolic function

  Your metabolism refers to all the chemical reactions in your body that sustain your life. The three main functions of metabolism are turning food into energy, turning food into building blocks for biological molecules (protein, fats, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates), and eliminating waste products. Metabolism is often spoken of in terms of quickness, i.e. a person can have a fast or slow metabolism. A fast or high metabolism means that the body is very efficient at burning calories, even when resting. People with a fast metabolic rate have to be sure to take in enough calories to sustain themselves. On the flip side, people with slow metabolism have bodies that are less efficient at burning calories, which leaves a lot more food energy is stored as fat. 

  Metabolome
  

  In order to study metabolism and understand which chemical processes are occurring most in the body, scientists study the metabolome. Metabolic reactions leave behind byproducts of food and different biomolecules, and we call these metabolites. Studying a cell’s metabolome is studying the “collection of all low-molecular-weight molecules (metabolites) present in the cell that are participants in general metabolic reactions and that are required for the maintenance, growth, and normal function of a cell” 

  Hands-on activity: Check your pulse!

  Space for completing this activity can be found in the brochure below. Resting heart rate is one data point that can provide insight into metabolic function. Have students measure theirs by following the instructions on the brochure and answering the questions. 

  Open-ended questions:

  What are metabolites?

  Can you think of an example of a metabolic process or pathway?

  How might different metabolic speeds/efficiencies affect a person’s health?

  
  

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    Metabolomics Brochure Archivo

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    Printable brochure that takes students 

    through the necessary background knowledge and main findings from the metabolomics portion of the the NASA Twin Study - 

    Students will examine the effects of microgravity on blood vessel inflammation

• Proteomics

  Proteome definition

  An organism’s proteome is their complete set of proteins expressed, and it can sometimes be used to describe proteins produced at a specific time in a specific cell or tissue. It is an expression of the organism’s genome.

  Protein structure
  

  Proteins have different tiers of structure. Primary structure refers to the amino acid sequence that makes up the protein chain. Secondary structure refers to the folded structure of a protein (alpha helices or beta sheets) due to interactions between atoms of the backbone. Tertiary structure refers to the complex folds that give the protein its overall shape, mostly due to interactions between amino acid R-groups. Many proteins come from a single amino acid chain, but some amino acid chains fold and come together as the subunits to a bigger polypeptide. The way that these subunits interact to make the whole protein is called the quaternary structure. Here’s a helpful Khan Academy lesson for more detail on these categories: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/proteins-and-amino-acids/a/orders-of-protein-structure 

  
  

  In most of biology, form will indicate function. Proteins are no exception. They are shaped in a way that allows them to perform their purpose. The purpose of some proteins is to bring about changes in the body, or to effectuate the signal of these changes in individual cells. Proteomics is the study of how proteins in the body interact with each other and function together in the whole body. The proteomic scientists in the twin study were looking at different amount of protein in fluid in the head to investigate what effects microgravity has on sight. The conducted tests on the blood plasma, blood pressure in the eye and the head, eye shape, and other relevant data points. They hoped to discover why astronauts sometimes experience sight problems. Learn more on the background of this problem here: https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/news-articles/vision-changes-in-space 

  Hands-on activity: 

  Space to complete this activity is in the downloadable Proteomics brochure below. Label the structures of the eye, and learn how microgravity affects the eye. 
  

  
  

  Open-ended questions: 

  How might protein structure affect its function? 

  • Example answer: Some proteins fit together like a puzzle piece, so if you take one essential part of a piece, the piece can not fit - at least not as well. For proteins that signal for major functions in the body, this can have major health consequences. 

  What is quaternary structure? Do all proteins have it? Do all proteins have tertiary structure?

  • Example answer: Quaternary structure is how multiple polypeptide chains act as subunits for a larger protein. Sometimes, one of these subunits is dysfunctional, and this can affect the whole protein. Not all proteins have quaternary structure though, since some are made from a single polypeptide chain, and they stop at tertiary structure.

  
  

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    Proteomics Brochure Archivo

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    Printable brochure that takes students 

    through the necessary background knowledge and main findings from the preoteomics portion of the the NASA Twin Study

• Microbiome

  Bacterial Anatomy

  Bacteria are all around us and inside us! Some species of bacteria help, and some hurt. Watch the  video below to learn about how bacteria, prokaryotic cells, are different than our eukaryotic cells. To highlight a few differences, they lack a nucleus, many have a locomotive ‘tail’ called flagella, and they are generally single-celled organisms rather than being part of a larger body. 

   

   
  

  
  

  Proliferating Bacteria

  Bacteria reproduce asexually, meaning they do not need a partner to generate offspring. To reproduce, a bacterial cell simply divides - making a clone of itself. Because each bacterium can easily reproduce on its own, bacteria that thrive tend to proliferate exponentially. One turns into two, and these two each divide to make four total. The four turn into eight, eight into sixteen, and so on. 

  Most bacteria thrive in warm, moist, protein-rich environments that are pH neutral or slightly acidic. This is why it’s important to change and wash your socks when they get sweaty! Different types of bacteria fuel themselves in different ways. Heterotrophic bacteria eat organic carbon, while autotrophic bacteria can make their own food through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. 

  Gut Bacteria: Bugs in us!

  Some of the phyla of bacteria that are most common in our digestive tract are Firmicutes, Bacteriodetes, Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, and Fusobacteria. In order to survive in our stomachs full of hydrochloric acid, the bacteria there must thrive in an acidic environment. However, most bacteria in our digestive tract reside in the large intestine, where they do not need to be good at surviving acidity. These gut microbiota have a huge impact on our health. A greatly imbalanced microbiome can lead to digestive discomfort like constipation, cramps, bloating, or acid reflux. But the effects go beyond our digestion to problems like unexpected weight change, constant fatigue, irritating skin conditions, food intolerances, and even mood changes. 

  Our gut bacteria composition is heavily influenced by our diet. Processed, high-sugar, high-fat foods can be harmful to our microbiome, while plant-based foods, leafy vegetables, lean proteins, and fiber are helpful. Taking probiotics or eating cultured food like yogurt, kefir, sauerkraut, kimchi, tempeh, pickles, or kombucha can help introduce good bacteria into your gut. 

  Hands-on Activity: 

  The space to complete this activity is included in the brochure below. Have each student complete the online game Bacteria in the Cafeteria and fill out their brochures (try to prevent students from discussing the answer to the riddle, so that they can each individually learn).

  
  

  Open-ended Questions:

  What kinds of bacteria are beneficial for human digestion?

  What sort of health consequences could arise from a hurt microbiome?

  Which foods should we eat to promote a healthy gut microbiome?

  
  
  

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    Microbiome Brochure Archivo

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    Printable brochure that takes students 

    through the necessary background knowledge and main findings from the microbiome portion of the the NASA Twin Study

• Conclusion

  Here's NASA's video detailing the key findings of this study!

   

   

  We hope you enjoyed learning all about the findings of NASA and their partners in the Twin Study! This study represents the work of so many amazing scientists and tons of pokes and prods to Mark and Scott Kelly. The opportunity to study genetically identical people, putting one in a variable environment (space) and keeping one as a control here on Earth, is incredibly remarkable scientifically. The data gathered in this study will continue to impact our understanding of human bodies in space and holds great promise for longer space expeditions in the future. 

  Let us know what you thought down below!

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    Feedback on Twin Study Lesson Encuesta

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• Glossary
  Bacteria - microscopic prokaryotic single-celled organisms 
  Cognition - mental processes of, relating to, being, or involving conscious intellectual activity (such as thinking,  
  DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid; genetic material made of nitrogenous bases (purines and pyrimidines) held together by hydrogen bonds, and a backbone of deoxyribose and phosphate, constructed in a double helix shape
  Dogma - something held as an established opinion; especially a definitive authoritative tenet
  Epigenome - the complement of chemical compounds that modify the expression and function of the genome
  Epigenomics - a branch of genomics concerned with epigenetic changes; the study of the epigenome
  Gene - a specific sequence of nucleotides in DNA or RNA that is located usually on a chromosome and that is the functional unit of inheritance controlling the transmission and expression of one or more traits by specifying the structure of a particular polypeptide and especially a protein or controlling the function of other genetic material
  Genome - broadly: all the genetic information of an organism
  Immunome - the set of genes and proteins that constitute the immune system, excluding those that are widespread in other cell types, and not involved in the immune response itself
  Integrative omics - a.k.a multiomics - a biological analysis approach in which the data sets are multiple "omes," such as the genome, proteome, transcriptome, epigenome, metabolome, and microbiome; in other words, the use of multiple omics technologies to study life in a concerted way.
  Metabolism - set of life-sustaining chemical reactions in organisms; primary functions of (i) turning energy in food into energy available for cellular processes, (ii) turning food into biological molecules like proteins, lipids, or nucleic acids, and (iii) waste elimination.
  Metabolomics - comprehensive analysis of metabolites (substances formed in or necessary for metabolism) in biological specimens
  Microbe - a microorganism, especially a bacterium
  Microbiome - a commuinty of microorganisms that inhabit a specific environment, especially the collection of microorganisms living in and on the human body
  Protein -  any of various naturally occurring extremely complex substances that consist of amino-acid residues joined by peptide bonds, contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, usually sulfur, and occasionally other elements (such as phosphorus or iron), and include many essential biological compounds (such as enzymes, hormones, or antibodies)
  Proteomics - a branch of biotechnology concerned with applying the techniques of molecular biology, biochemistry, and genetics to analyzing the structure, function, and interactions of the proteins produced by the genes of a particular cell, tissue, or organism, with organizing the information in databases, and with applications of the data
  RNA - any of various nucleic acids that contain ribose and uracil as structural components and are associated with the control of cellular chemical activities
  Telomere  -  the natural end of a eukaryotic chromosome composed of a usually repetitive DNA sequence and serving to stabilize the chromosome
  Transcription - the process of constructing a messenger RNA molecule using a DNA molecule as a template with resulting transfer of genetic information to the messenger RNA
  Translation - the process of forming a protein molecule at a ribosomal site of protein synthesis from information contained in messenger RNA
  Sources:
  Merriam Webster, with some discretionary edits
  Wikipedia
  

• Bibliography
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    Twin Study Bibliography Archivo

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• Send a Postcard to Space!

  Send a Postcard to Space through NSS Supported Blue Origin Club For The Future initiative!

  Visit: SpacEdge Academy Postcards in Space Course