Topic outline

• General

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  The development of the Modern Day Space Elevator is increasing in speed and is soon to make a "breakout" into major testing. To get started, there are multiple sources of information at www.isec.org that will help greatly. To get current, start with the video Space Elevator 101:

  https://www.isec.org/space-elevator-101
  
  Current papers and presentations are found at https://www.isec.org/recent-publications.
  
  
  

• Why Modern Day Space Elevators

  Why Space Elevators?”  

  

                 Image shows dual access to space with advanced rockets and space elevators

  The answer is – Space Elevators have:

  - Unmatched efficiencies (70% of mass is payload to GEO and beyond, 30% of mass is a reusable climber)
  - Unmatched velocities (7.76 km/sec at apex anchor - release to go beyond Mars, no fuel required except for    slowing down at the other end for safe delivery)
  - Unmatched movement of logistics mass (30,000 tonnes in their first year of operations — humanity has only put up 20,000 tonnes by rockets since 1957)

  - Unmatched environmental impact – approaches zero since the climbers are raised by electricity

  The Modern Day Space Elevator has evolved from a dream to a scientific engineering possibility. The understanding of the new 3-D material characteristics have enabled the transition to a real mega-project. The five major thrusts are: 

  • Space Elevators are ready to enter Engineering Development (Phase Two of development) 
  • Space Elevators are the Green Road to Space 
  • Space Elevators can join advanced rockets inside a Dual Space Access Architecture 
  • Space Elevators’ major strength as a permanent transportation infrastructure is massive movement of cargo to GEO and beyond, enabling new enterprises along the way. 
  • Space Elevators’ transformational characteristics revolutionize the future of space

  New Vision: Space Elevators are the Green Road to Space while they enable humanity's most important missions by moving massive tonnage to GEO and beyond. This is accomplished safely, routinely, efficiently, inexpensively, daily, and they are environmentally neutral. 

  
  

• Body of Knowledge - www.isec.org

  The body of knowledge for the modern space elevator exists at the website of The International Space Elevator Consortium. The space elevator idea started early this century and has been built since then into a tremendous amount of information available at your fingertips. Some of the items of importance are: 1) videos including Space Elevator 101; 2) history section including a book covering the development of the space elevator; 3) citations and references covering the last 25+ years; 4) study reports available covering multiple areas of research (see each and download pdfs for free); 5) current and past research; and 5) special emphasis on the Green Road to Space. www.isec.org is the location for all the above. Especially good for current activities is the monthly newsletter.                                                                                                                                                                     

  Over the last six months (last half of 2023) there have been two sets of articles published that really reflect the current status of the Modern Day Space Elevator:  June 2023 SPACEFLIGHT Magazine (of the British Interplanetary Society) with five papers:  (1) The Right Stuff (description of the future tether material),(2)  Galactic Harbours (description of the initial operations), (3) Cooperation and Competition (description of the Dual Space Access Architecture pairing rockets and space elevators together), (4) Modern Day Space Elevators (updating the architecture), and (5 Incredible Engineering (description of the Obayashi Corporation design).  These are at:  

  https://www.isec.org/recent-publications (pdf free)
  
  Being posted this month at www.isec.org will be six articles inside the British Interplanetary Society Journal.  They are:  (1) Space Elevators: Introduction to this special issue, (2) Building the Space Elevator Tether, (3) Payload Design for the Space Elevator Climber, (4) Innovation and Research for Space Elevators, (5) Huge Fast Spacecraft Traveling Our Solar System, and (6) The Lunar Space Elevator: A Key Technology for Realizing the Greater Earth Lunar Power Station.  at https://www.isec.org/recent-publications  (pdf free) - by 1 Nov 2023. 
  

• Space Elevator Academic Challenge

  NSS Co-Sponsors Space Elevator Academic Challenge 2024 - Entry Deadline November 15, 2023
  

  The International Space Elevator Consortium (ISEC), in conjunction with the National Space Society (NSS), is conducting a student academic challenge contest regarding the concept of space elevators.

  First prize is $2000 and a total of $7000 in prizes will be awarded. The contest is for individual students or teams of up to four students from around the world. The first phase of the three-phase contest is to submit an abstract of your idea, up to 400 words, by November 15.

  Imagine an advanced lift system which raises 170,000 metric tons to space every year, the equivalent of 8500 Falcon Heavy launches, and with no atmospheric pollution—a “green road to space.” The identification of a suitably strong material (single crystal graphene super laminate) to build a space elevator could make it a reality in your lifetime. For information about space elevators and their capability visit isec.org.

  For the contest you can actually pick from two challenges. First, select a “mission” that would be important for humanity’s future which would be enormously enhanced by space elevators. The first challenge asks you to assess how your selected “mission” would be benefited by the “green road” access to space that space elevators would provide.  The second challenge asks you to explain how artificial intelligence (AI) technologies could be used to enhance the capability of the space elevator’s transformational characteristics in achieving your chosen “mission.”

  Separate prizes will be awarded for high school and university entries. First Prize is $2000, Second Prize is $1000, and Third Prize is $500 in each of these two categories. Winners will be invited to present at the NSS International Space Development Conference May 23-26, 2024, in Los Angeles.

  For detailed rules and guidelines for the contest and description of the three contest phases, see https://www.isec.org/academic-challenge.

  
  

• Space Elevator ISEC Research Study Reports

  Research has been conducted since the beginning of ISEC with teams of experts helping to progress the concept along. They can all be downloaded in pdf format for free at www.isec.org. They include:    

  Year	Title of ISEC Yearly Study Reports (www.isec.org/studies)
  2024	Apex Anchor Design Characteristics – just starting
  2023	Leverage Dual Space Access Architecture
  2023	Design Considerations for the Space Elevator Climber-Tether Interface
  2021	Space Elevators are the Green Road to Space
  2020-2	Space Elevator is the Transportation Story of the 21st Century
  2020-1	Today's Space Elevator Assured Survivability Approach for Space Debris
  2019	Today's Space Elevator, Status as of Fall 2019
  2018	Design Considerations for a Multi-Stage Space Elevator
  2017-1	Design Considerations for a Software Space Elevator Simulator
  2017-1	Design Considerations for Space Elevator Apex Anchor and GEO Node
  2015-1	Design Considerations for a Space Elevator Earth Port
  2014-1	Space Elevator Architectures and Roadmaps
  2013-1	Design Considerations for a Space Elevator Tether Climber
  2012-1	Space Elevator Concept of Operations
  2010-1	Space Elevator Survivability, Space Debris Mitigation

• International Academy of Astronautics Study Reports

  The International Academy of Astronautics is an independent Paris-based non-governmental organization that was founded in Stockholm on August 16, 1960, by Dr. Theodore von Kármán. It received recognition from the United Nations in 1996.  It brings together the world’s foremost experts in the disciplines of astronautics on a regular basis to recognize the accomplishments of their peers, to explore and discuss cutting-edge issues in space research and technology, and to provide direction and guidance in the non-military uses of space and the ongoing exploration of the solar system.

  https://iaaspace.org/
  
  They conducted two major studies on the Space Elevator with the common result from both - The space elevator seems to be feasible.  

  List of International Academy of Astronautics Studies
  Reports covering Space Elevators

   

  Year	Title
  2019	The Road to the Space Elevator Era
  2014	Space Elevators: An Assessment of the Technological Feasibility and the Way Forward
  	If interested in free pdf, email info@isec.org
  go to:	Virginia Edition Publishing Company, Heinlein Prize Trust   https://www.heinleinbooks.com/book-store

   

  
  

• Space Elevators answer the Conundrum of Rockets

  The conundrum of rockets is the simple realization that the delivery of mass to its destination is an insignificant percentage of the mass on the launch pad.  The glaring example is the delivery of a half percent of the launch pad mass to the surface of the moon for Apollo 11.  It is up to 2% for delivery to Geosynchronous Orbit and woefully small for delivery to Mars' orbit, much less Mars' surface.  The question is why would you employ a methodology for delivery that only delivers less than one percent to your desired location (lets say the future Gateway around the Moon).  The Space Elevator solves that conundrum by delivering 70% of the mass at liftoff (the other 30% is the tether climber and will be reused repeatedly) to GEO and beyond by leveraging electricity.  

  
  

• Space Elevator Strengths/Characteristics

  Research has shown a Permanent Space Infrastructure would enable massive movement of cargo to GEO and beyond in a safe, environmentally friendly, inexpensive, daily and routine way – thus transforming the approach for humanity to escape Earth’s gravity. How many dreams can come true when you can lift 30,000 tonnes to GEO and beyond per year – at initial operational capability (170,000 at full operational capability)? The restrictions of rocket launches are well understood; but, when you permanently beat gravity you:

  • Enable Space Solar Power while supporting the Paris Accords 
  • Lift payloads as the Green Road to Space, helping to save our atmosphere 
  • Improve life on Earth with major accomplishments, in space 
  • Enable early completion of massive projects, such as lunar villages 
  • Shorten the time for delivery of 1,000,000 tonnes to Mars, and 
  • Enable early development of an L-5 settlement with millions of inhabitants

  
  

  A Mars settlement could be used as an example: The most remarkable strengths of Space Elevators relate to being permanent transportation infrastructures. A recent study completed by Arizona State University and the International Space Elevator Consortium illuminated some remarkable capabilities about supporting settlements on Mars (as an example of off-planet development). This movement of planet includes Space Elevators’:

  • Daily departures from the Apex Anchor towards Mars at great velocity (7.76 km/sec)
  • Support rapid interplanetary missions (fastest transit is 61 days to Mars, with a range of travel times during the 26-month planetary dance)
  • Supply massive payloads daily (170,000 tonnes per year from three Galactic Harbours)
  • Enable carbon negative operations for deliveries to Mars
  • Exit the gravity well while avoiding the burden of the rocket equation
  • And, accomplish this daily, routinely, inexpensively and carbon neutrally

  
  

  Indeed, Space Elevators are the Transformational Leap For Movement Off-Planet.  

  As you study the modern day space elevator, surprising strengths are inherent in its permanent infrastructure approach. If you think about transitioning from a small boat going across a large river to the improvement of a bridge with tremendous traffic utilizing a railroad with trains many times a day, the impact of the transformation becomes obvious. The surprising strengths are expressed as:

  • Unmatched delivery efficiencies as well as daily, routine, safe, and inexpensive
  • Unmatched massive movement (Initial Operational Capability (IOC) at 30,000 tonnes/yr with Full Operational Capability (FOC) 170,000 tonnes/yr),
    
  • Unmatched high velocity (starting at 7.76 km/sec at 100,000 altitude enables rapid transits to the Moon, Mars and beyond)
  • As a Green Road to Space, it ensures environmentally neutral operations
  • Reduction of  Rocket Fairing Design limitations
  • Assembly at the Top of the Gravity Well
  • Transforming the economics towards an infrastructure with access to more valuable, lucrative, stable and reliable investments.  

  
  
  

  
  

  
  

• Space Elevators are the Green Road to Space

  ISEC conducted a 24 month study to assess the significance of the "green or not green" approach to placing payloads into space [free pdf at www.isec.org/studies].
  

  The setting for the study included the year of 2020 which had many negative aspects from fires, pestilence, hurricanes and pandemics. The beautiful thing is that it also had so many nations coming together in the vision of moving off-planet. The summer flotilla of vehicles going to Mars was remarkable and the joining of countries to go to the Moon shows an initiative so huge it is motivational. The question then becomes, with this new movement off-planet, how shall the Space Elevator enthusiasts respond? All this action reinforces the critical nature of the Space Elevator as participants in the future with the inherent strengths of being a permanent transportation infrastructure with a zero-carbon footprint. If everyone wants to have their citizens living on the Moon or Mars, a massive movement of equipment and supplies will be needed. Space Elevators are the answer! The Space Elevator community's vision should be, that it can support this historic movement and ensure its success. Space Elevators CAN move millions of tonnes of cargo -- no-one else can with a beneficial environmental approach and timely delivery to multiple destinations.  Our new vision is:

  
  

  Space Elevators are the Green Road to Space. They enable humanity's most important missions by moving massive tonnage to GEO and beyond. They accomplish this safely, routinely, inexpensively, daily and they are environmentally neutral.

  This study report shows how the Space Elevator is a Massive Green Machine and should be called the "Green Road to Space." In addition, the study report showed how the Space Elevator enables missions that cannot reasonably be accomplished with rockets and thus can help improve the human condition on Earth.

  The study reports on the "green missions" of Space Solar Power, Sun Moon L-1 Solar Shade, and permanent disposal of high-level nuclear waste. In addition, it assesses the environmental impact from development and operations of Space Elevators. One of the main conclusions is that the movement off-planet demands the initiation of a Dual Space Access Architecture where future rockets and Space Elevators are complementary, compatible and not competitive. Indeed, others are ready to leap into the off-planet movement. However, Space Elevators, as a part of the Dual Space Access Architecture, have tremendous strengths that have not yet been included in their strategies for going to the Moon and beyond. This new movement off-planet should include the Space Elevator's ability to: 

  • a) Depart the Apex Anchor at great velocity (7.76 km/sec), 
  • b) Support interplanetary missions (Fast Transit to Mars 61 days), 
  • c) Supply massive daily payloads (170,000 tonnes per year), 
  • d) Create entrepreneurial enterprises at GEO and the Galactic Harbours, 
  • e) Enable new environmentally significant missions (Space Solar Power, Solar Shades, hi-level nuclear waste disposal, etc.), 
  • f) Enable carbon negative operations for delivery to orbit, and 
  • g) Exit the gravity well using solar powered tether climbers and not rocket fuel and accomplish this daily, routinely, inexpensively and with carbon negativity

  
  

  Essentially, the team summarized with:

  Rockets to open up the Moon and Mars with Space Elevators to supply and grow the colonies. In addition, Space Elevators will enable Green Missions such as, Space Solar Power and L-1 Sun Shades. This approach is compatible and complementary with future rockets while leveraging the strengths of both inside a Dual Space Access Architecture.
  

  
  

  
  

• Tether Material

  Space Elevator Tether Materials:
  The Crux of the Matter

  The basic concept of a space elevator is to launch a satellite into geosynchronous orbit, lower a tether down to the surface of the Earth, and then climb up the tether into space. All of the parts of a space elevator can be done with today’s technology apart from one element – the tether, which requires a material strong and light enough to support its own weight plus that of the payload. The tether would be 100,000 kilometers long and 1 meter wide with the thickness of Saran Wrap. Until recently the only candidate material was carbon nanotubes, but manufacturing this material in the quantities needed has proved a challenge unmet.

  
  

  Three Tether Material Options
  

  
  

  Today there are three known materials strong enough for a space elevator: carbon nanotubes, hexagonal boron nitride, and single crystal graphene. Single crystal graphene is currently the most promising. These three materials are illustrated in the diagram below.

  
  

  

  
  

  A Nobel Prize Discovery: Graphene

  In 2010 two scientists at the University of Manchester, UK won the Nobel prize for discovering and isolating a new material called graphene. Graphene is a new form of carbon 200 times stronger than steel yet flexible and transparent. It is the world’s best conductor of heat and electricity. It has the highest melting point of any known material and is non-toxic. Graphene is strong enough and light enough to make the space elevator tether.

  

  
  

  Forms of Graphene

  There are three important forms of graphene: Graphene Powder, Single Crystal Graphene, and Polycrystalline Graphene. Single Crystal Graphene is the form that will ultimately manufacture the Space Elevator tether.

  1. Graphene Powder

  Graphene is starting to revolutionize manufacturing. It is currently made in powder form and the Ford Motor company is already making quieter, stronger cars in the USA. For example, the 2019 Ford Mustang was graphene enhanced. Graphene powder has been added to asphalt roads in Italy where it doubles the service life of the highway. However, graphene powder cannot be used to make the space elevator tether.

  2. Single Crystal Graphene

  Single crystal graphene is the term used to describe a large-scale sheet of graphene with no defects. Making this material as a single molecule of carbon at the macro scale was thought impossible until the Chinese made this in the laboratory in July 2017. Since then other laboratories in China, South Korea and the USA have made single crystal graphene, producing half meter long single crystals with tensile strengths that could support the Space Elevator.

  3. Polycrystalline Graphene

  Polycrystalline graphene is composed of single-crystalline grains of varying orientation joined by grain boundaries. Defects can also take the form of vacancies where one or more carbon atoms are missing.

  

  
  

  Industrial Manufacturing of Graphene

  To make the material for the space elevator tether requires manufacturing on very large scales and speeds. Carbon nanotubes can currently be made at sub-meter lengths, very slowly. If a nanotube could be made a meter long, it would take 11 days. Graphene on the other hand, in its polycrystalline form, can already be made at lengths of one kilometer and a speed of 2 meters per minute. Neither material can be made at tether quality yet, but the trajectory clearly favors graphene as the industrial material of choice. There are at least four competing industrial companies manufacturing graphene at present.

  Graphene Laminate

  When graphene layers are formed without contaminants present each atomic layer can engage with the others. An electrostatic attraction called the Van der Waals force helps bond the layers together, creating a much stronger structure than would otherwise be expected. This bonding strength increases the rigidity with the cube of the number of layers. Also, a Van der Waals homostructure of single crystal graphene will be much stronger than one made from polycrystalline graphene.

  

  
  

  In 2021 the U.S. company General Graphene supplied ISEC with samples of layered polycrystalline graphene ranging from one atom thick to 30 atoms thick. A space elevator tether would be about 12,000 atoms thick at its thickest point.

  
  

  

  
  

  Graphene Layer Bonding

  The Van der Waals bond between the layers is much weaker than the covalent bond between the atoms within each layer. The ISEC climber-tether interface study group discovered that the Van der Waals bond between layers of graphene super-laminate is about 35 times too weak to support a 20-tonne climber without causing slippage between the layers.

  A potential solution has been found in the literature. When two such layers are pressed together with sufficient force it can create a stronger bond called an sp3 hybrid bond, which is like that found in diamond which accounts for the diamond’s great strength. Using pressure to create such cross-links between the layers would in effect "spot weld" the tether and improve its resistance to slipping under shear. This bonding between layers is shown in the graphic below.

  

  
  

  This summarizes the current state of knowledge about candidates for space elevator tether materials. For more information see the article "The Right Stuff" in Spaceflight magazine, June, 2023.
  

  
  

• Dual Space Access Strategy: Leveraging rockets and space elevators

  The International Space Elevator Consortium’s (ISEC) research into future needs of customers, the strengths of advanced rockets, and the characteristics of Space Elevators have all culminated in this report.  Along the research path, ISEC recognized three remarkable characteristics of Space Elevators that establish the need for its development in the near future: “Why Space Elevators?”

  •  Unmatched Efficiency of logistics to GEO and beyond – 70% of Climber mass is payload with no debris left in orbit and raised with electricity (a Green Road to Space) [Eddy, 2021].
    
  • Unmatched Velocity upon release from an Apex Anchor going to the Moon and Mars. (7.76 km/sec from above the gravity well, some as fast as 61 days to Mars) [Swan, 2020a]
    
  • Unmatched logistics movement of mass with 30,000 tonnes in the first year of Space Elevator operation and 170,000 tonnes per year to GEO and beyond once maturity is reached. [Swan, 2020a] 
    

   Another major concept solidified during this research. when looking at advanced rockets and the future of humanity’s needs from/in orbit.  There should be cooperation and coordination between advanced rocket projects and Space Elevators once they start operations (approximately 2037).  This Dual Space Access strategy will leverage the best of future rockets and Space Elevators allowing humanity to reach farther and sooner for the implementation of remarkable dreams.  This report looks at several of these major programs and recognizes that rockets alone will have tremendous challenges in moving mass against gravity and “playing nicely” with our atmosphere.  As such, the ability of Space Elevators, as the Green Road to Space, will enable most missions to be achieved in much shorter timelines.  One million tonnes to the surface of Mars will take decades to achieve with rockets while Space Elevators (once into mature operations) will be able to handle the delivery in less than a decade.  

   During this research, several missions were analyzed and presented in this report.  Each one needs massive movement of logistics and requires satellites at GEO and beyond.  Space Solar Power constellations can result in over 3,000,000 tonnes to GEO to impact the power needs and assist in reducing global warming.  Solar Shades can reduce the temperature at the surface of the Earth but requires up to 20 million tonnes beyond GEO to the Sun-Earth L-1 location.  In addition, examining Planetary Defense showed some promising solutions to intractable problems by using Apex Anchors as Planetary Defense nodes – garages for storage and assembly of large planetary defense mission vehicles as well as observation locations for additional views of the environment around Earth.  Then there is the strength of Space Elevators of “assembly above the gravity well.”  By lifting satellite segments (at roughly 14 tonnes each) and assembling them above the gravity well, solar system science missions can become quite large and are then released with tremendous energy towards our outer planets – every day of the year launches.  In addition, these factories or garages at 100,000 km above Earth will act as logistics centers for CisLunar activities or even astronaut rescue centers for storage of equipment, oxygen, water and food deliveries for emergencies.  The 14 hour travel time with daily releases toward the Moon would enable “quick responses” to emergencies.  

   While the study team worked on this report, the consolidated effort also led to the recognition that:  the modern-day Space Elevator will be transformational as a permanent space access infrastructure as they: are ready to enter engineering development, become a Green Road to Space, join the advanced rockets inside a Dual Space Access Architecture Strategy, and implement permanent transportation infrastructure characteristics leading to dominant support to customers.  The image that has surfaced is:  “Think of a bridge after centuries of using boats to cross a river.”  This report has pulled together many concepts to help readers understand the revolution that is coming. In a previous ISEC study report, the following words were presented and still apply.

   “Rockets to open up the Moon and Mars with Space Elevators to supply and grow the settlements. In addition, Space Elevators                               will enable Green Missions such as, Space Solar Power and L-1 Sun Shades. This approach is compatible and complementary                                       with future rockets while leveraging the strengths of both inside a Dual Space Access Architecture.” [Eddy, 2021]

  report at:       https://www.isec.org/studies/#LeverageDualSpace 
  

• Extraterrestrial Space Elevators

  The attached paper discusses this topic:  The ability to move massive amounts of materials and people will enable space colonization. The needs of the people and their habitats will drive logistics loads to levels never achieved before in the space arena. Key to this enabling technology is the space elevator. With today’s materials, space elevators can be built around the Moon and Mars because of the lesser gravity well inherent in the planets. However, the biggest issue is raising mass against Earth’s gravity wells to just begin colonization. The trades are intriguing when looking at where the most value resides; and, when the technologies will enable space elevators. These engineering trades will be compared with cost and logical requirements associated with a movement of population off of Earth and toward the Moon, Mars and beyond. The concept of an infrastructure to move mass into and around space greatly simplifies [and dramatically lowers cost] the logistics tail. So the question is:  Where will the first space elevator be constructed? At the Moon? At Mars? Or here on our home planet?  

  The paper ends with the this conclusion:  Design and build the space elevator on the Earth FIRST. The rationale for this is that the greatest need is moving out of the gravity well that the human race has been captured in for eternity. This will ENABLE colonization. The second is that the business case closes for a robust transportation infrastructure on the Earth to Moon and beyond path. The ONLY financially viable space elevator is one where the most usage will occur. The parallel to a railroad is obvious and must be followed. The technical achievement must be accomplished, even if it is so much more difficult, because it will ENABLE movement off of the Earth. 

  There are many more papers on the topic, but we must develop a robust movement off Earth before the other space elevators will become part of a large movement.